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內容試閱：
Passage
26
Trade
and Commerce in the Middle Ages
In ancient times, trading over any
significant distance was an expensive and risky enterprise. This restricted commerce
mainly to local markets. However, after a decline following the breakup of the
Roman Empire, European commerce expanded gradually to distant countries during
the Middle Ages. Accompanying such a growth in trade and commerce were the
establishment of guilds and the improvement in monetary systems, which, in
turn, further enhanced the trade expansion.
The expansion of trade from the West to the
East was helped along by the Crusades. It was a series of military expeditions,
initially carried out for recapturing Christi an holy places in the Middle East
from Islam. These expeditions facilitated the relations with Eastern countries,
by developing a taste in the West for their indigenous productions. The
conquest of Palestine, by the Crusaders, first opened all the towns and harbors
of the Italian states to Western traders, many of whom were able to permanently
establish themselves there, with all sorts of privileges and exemptions from
taxes. Besides, as the Crusaders traveled through the Eastern lands to reach
Jerusalem, many new products were introduced to Europe. Trade and commerce in
the Middle Ages changed to include different products, from Cairo and
Alexandria in Egypt, Damascus in Syria, Baghdad & Mosul in Iraq, and other
great cities, which became important commerce and trading centers because of
their strategic location, astride the trade routes to India, Persia, and the
Mediterranean. The products were then carried across the Mediterranean to the
Italian seaports, and then on to the major towns and cities of Europe.
Other improvements to the Middle Ages trade
and commerce were also made by enhancing security. As a consequence of the
growth, both, of commerce and of urban communities, guilds began to come into
being on the European continent in the 11th century, and in England, after the
Norman Conquest. Merchants traveled from market to market in foreign countries,
and, for the sake of mutual protection, a group of merchants from the same city
often banded together in a caravan. The members of a caravan elected a leader,
and made rules that they pledged to obey. The name for such a caravan was Gilde
or Hansa in the Germanic countries of Europe. In countries speaking languages
derived from Latin, the term was caritas or fraternity as. Under the leadership
of such guilds, the coasts were protected from piratical incursions, and
lighthouses were erected at dangerous points to prevent shipwrecks. Besides,
the members are obliged to stand by each other in legal disputes, in which any
might engage. In this way, treaties of commerce with foreign nations, including
even the most distant, were able to guarantee the liberty and security of
traders abroad. As commerce and trade, especially long-distance trade, became
safer and more general, the expansion of trade advanced further.
Before the collapse of the Roman Empire,
urban centers in Europe once prospered, and many monetary systems were
established. For example, through the banning of private or unauthorized
minting, the first important standardization of sizes, weights, and values of
coins was inaugurated under the Roman Empire. The banking system was so highly
developed that its bankers could accept deposits of money, make loans, and
purchase mortgages. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, however, the
minting again went into chaos and the banking system also declined. Yet, by the
beginning of the 11th century, trade revived and towns began a three-century
growth spurt. The coinage and banking activities also began to resume. In 1252,
the city of Florence minted the first gold coins since Roman times—the golden
florin. And with the revival of banking in the 13th century, the moneychangers
of the Italian states developed facilities for exchanging local and foreign
currency. Soon, merchants demanded other services, such as lending money, and,
gradually, banking services were expanded. The revival and development of the
banking system, not only facilitated distant trade, but also provided the merchants
with more capital they need to extend their business.
1.
This can be seen clearly in the
changes that affected Venetian shipping and trade. TPO-25: The Decline of
Venetian Shipping
2.
From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and
psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually by a supporting back pillar. TPO-11:
Ancient Egyptian Sculpture
3.
These were essentially professional associations that provided for the aid and protection of their members, and
allowed for the maintenance of professional standards. TPO-16: Trade and the
Ancient Middle East
4.
Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by
Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems
reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization that set out fully stocked with food and
domesticated plants and animals. TPO-5: The Origin of the Pacific Island
People
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