(2)动词的种类和变化
一个英文动词本身虽只有现在形、过去形、过去分词形和现在分词形四种形式,例如“看见”这个动词,则有see,saw,seen,seeing四个不同的变化,但这四种形式运用起来,也可变出十六种不同的时态,即
1. He sees(现在)
2. He saw(过去)
3. He has seen (现在完成)
4. He had seen (过去完成)
5. He is seeing(现在进行)
6. He was seeing (过去进行)
7. He will see(现在推量)
8. He would see (过去推量)
9. He has been seeing (现在完成进行)
10. He had been seeing (过去完成进行)
11. He will have seen (现在完成推量)
12. He would have seen (过去完成推量)
13. He will be seeing (现在进行推量)
14. He would be seeing (过去进行推量)
15. He will have been seeing (现在完成进行推量)
16. He would have been seeing (过去完成进行推量)
这便是英文动词的变化和用法。奇数是现在,偶数是过去。所谓“完成”是英文特有的动词时态,它本身又有现在、过去、未来之分,现在完成所代表的时态,是从过去到现在,过去完成是指过去的过去,未来完成是说未来的过去。所谓“进行”是真正的现在,即正在进行中的动作,英文的现在时态,只是一种经常的现象而已。所谓“推量”即指未来的事现在加以预测,并不怎样确实的。
所谓现在、过去、未来三种基本的时态,每种又包含得有单纯的,以前的,以后的三个时期,现举例说明如下:
Ⅰ.PRESENT
1. Simple present:
I take three meals a day.
2. Before-present:
I have finished my meal.
3. After-present:
I am about to start my meal.
Ⅱ.PAST
1. Simple past:
Last Wednesday at two o’clock my plane left.
2. Before-past:
Last Wednesday at two o’clock I had just returned from London.
3. After-past:
Last Wednesday at two o’clock I was about to give my speech.
Ⅲ.FUTURE
1. Simple future:
Next Wednesday at two o’clock I will land at New York.
2. Before-future:
Next Wednesday by two o’clock I will have landed at New York.
3. After-future:
Next Wednesday at two o’clock I will be about to land at New York。
再就性质来说,英文动词又可大别为两类:自动词(Intransitive Verb)和他动词(Transitive Verb)。自动词是说明主语的动作或状态的,它自身已能完成一个意念,不必要补足什么要素,而成为一个完整的动作。例如唐诗人贾岛的名句:
鸟宿池边树,僧敲月下门。
译成英文时,便是
Birds dwell in a tree by the pond.
A monk knocks at the door under the moon.
又如,
皓月当空。
The moon shines brightly.
凉风起天末。
A cool breeze sprang up in the sky.
日出于东而落于西。
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
到了春天美丽的花朵开遍原野。
In spring beautiful flowers bloom in the open country.
我今天觉得好多了。
I feel much better today.
我对他那贵重的援助非常感谢。
I am deeply indebted to him for his valuable assistance.
在以上例句中有主语 Birds及其述语 dwell
在以上例句中有主语 monk及其述语 knocks
在以上例句中有主语 moon及其述语shines
在以上例句中有主语 breeze及其述语 sprang
在以上例句中有主语 sun及其述语 rises
在以上例句中有主语 sun及其述语sets
在以上例句中有主语 flowers及其述语 bloom
在以上例句中有主语 I 及其述语 feel
在以上例句中有主语 I 及其述语 am
前七例是说明主语的动作的,后二例是说明主语的状态的。
他动词就不同了,若单说 have,make 等字时,意念是不完全的,必得再加上宾语,才能表出一个完全的意念,例如:
我在新加坡有许多熟人。
I have many acquaintances in Singapore.
我早已跟他结识了。
I made his acquaintance long ago.
我害了重伤风。
I have taken a bad cold.
我带着照相机到槟城去玩了一星期。
I made a week’s trip to Penang with my camera.
所有的他动词都要有宾语,否则不成句,因为他动词没有宾语就不能表示出一个完全的意念来,上举四例:
主语 述语 宾语
I have acquaintances
I made acquaintance
I have taken cold
I made trip
这两种动词又可以再细分为四种,即:完全自动词(Complete Intransitive Verb)与不完全自动词(Incomplete Intransitive Verb);完全他动词(Complete Transitive Verb)与不完全他动词 (Incomplete Transitive Verb)。现在分别举例说明如下:
完全自动词本身已能表示一个完全的意念,无须再加补语,例如
昨夜下了大雨。
It rained heavily last night.
一轮明月在东方升起。
A beautiful moon has risen in the eastern sky.
在晴天众鸟欢鸣。
In fine weather birds sing merrily.
在以上各例句中除主语和述语外,便没有其他的要素了,那就是说,没有宾语或补语,有的只是无关重要的形容词,副词,或形容词片语,副词片语之类罢了。如第一句中的 heavily是副词,last night是副词片语。第二句中的a和beautiful是形容词,in the eastern sky 是副词片语。第三句中的in fine weather是副词片语,merrily是副词。这些都是修饰语,不是文句不可缺少的要素。所以这种完全自动词的句子,在语言学上称为favourite sentence(最普通的句子),因为它只需要“动作者+动作”就行了。
不完全自动词本身不能表出一个完全的意念,必须补上另外的字才能成句。你单说 He is,即“他是”,听者必然要问“他是什么”?又如你说He becomes,即“他变得”,听者必然要问“他变得怎样了”?我们如果在这两种说法的后面,加上rich一字,意念便完全了。即变成He is rich.“他是有钱人”。He becomes rich.“他变得有钱了”。这个 rich的字,在文法上就叫做补语。又因为这是补足主语的意味的,所以称为主格补语(Subjective
Complement)。加上补语的不完全自动词,便能表示出一个完全的意念来了。
他是一位教师。
He is a teacher.
他好像很诚实的样子。
He seems quite honest.
他直到最后都是很忠实的。
He remained faithful to the last.
天气变得很热了。
It has become much warmer.
她渐入老境。
She is growing (or getting) old.
那谣言证实了。
The rumour proved true.
霜叶红于二月花。
The frosted maple leaves have turned red, much redder than the flowers in spring.
在上面的例句中,有三个要素,举出如下:
主语 述语 补语
He is teacher
He seems honest
He remained faithful
It has become warmer
She is growing old
rumour proved true
leaves have turned red
完全他动词是不要补语的,但它非有宾语不可。有时采用一个宾语,有时采用两个宾语。先看采用一个宾语的造句。这是任何他动词都可以用的,只要有宾语,就可造出一个句子来,别的字多也无用。
树大招风。
Tall trees catch much wind.
我们每天学英语。
We study English every day.
我昨天在理发店遇见他。
I met him at the barber’s yesterday.
他的法国话比英语说得好。
He speaks French better than English.
在上面的例句中,有三个要素,举出如下:
主语 述语 宾语
trees catch wind
We study English
I met him
He speaks French;English
采用两个宾语的完全他动词,又叫做授与动词(Dative Verb)。这是由“授物与人”(give something to a person)或“授人以物”(give a person something)的基本观念而产生的。这个“人”与“物”,都是句子当中的宾语,所以就变成一个句子有两个宾语了。通常“物”是直接宾语(Direct Object),“人”是间接宾语(Indirect Object),因为真正给的是物,接受那物的才是人。
把货物交给我,我就会付你钱。
Give me the goods,and I will give you the money.
她问那孩子叫什么名字。
She asked the boy his name.
医生不许他的病人喝酒。
The doctor forbade his patient wine.
我羡慕你的健康。
I envy you your good health.
请你帮我一个忙好吗?。
Will you do me a favour?
付一块钱给车夫。
Pay the driver one dollar.
他们对我们并无恶意。
They meant us no harm.
通常是把间接宾语放在直接宾语之前,如果为加强语气等原因而把直接宾语放到前面去的话,就要在间接宾语前加介词 to, for,of等而做成一个片语,例如:
我寄了一封信给她。
I sent her a letter.=I sent a letter to her.
我为她买了一袭新衣。
I bought her a new dress.= I bought a new dress for her.
我想求你一件事。
I wish to ask you a favour.=I wish to ask a favour of you.
这样一来,采用两个宾语的授与动词,就变成采用一个宾语的普通动词了。句中的 to her,for her,of you,都是介词的片语,等于一个形容词的作用。不过有人还是把它视为两个宾语的句子。
单有宾语还不能表示一个完全的意念,必得再加以补语的,便是不完全他动词。这种动词含有使动的作用,是有所作为的,所以又称为作为动词(Factitive Verb)。例如:
他使父母快乐。
He made his parents happy.
总统任命他为将官。
The president made him a general.
结果是父母感到快乐(His parents were 〔or became〕happy.),那人成为将军(He was〔or became〕a general.),这都不外是那动词有所作为的结果。第一句中的 happy是形容词补语(Adjective Complement),第二句中的 general是名词补语(Noun Complement),二者都是补足句中的宾语的,所以就叫作宾格补语(Objective Complement),跟上面说过的主格补语不同。
英文的动词,自动或他动,完全或不完全,都不是固定不移的,任何一个动词,常有变化发生,一定要看它用在什么句子中,才能确定它的性质乃至它的意义。例如:
(a)鸵鸟不能飞。
The ostrich cannot fly.(这个fly是自动词)。
(b)我会放风筝。
I can fly a kite.(这个fly是他动词)。
同是一个自动词,也有完全及不完全两种用法,例如:
(a)车轮徐转。
The wheels are turning slowly.(这个turn是完全自动词)。
(b)树叶转黄。
The leaves are turning yellow.(这个turn是不完全自动词)。
同是一个他动词,也有完全及不完全两种用法,如
(a)我们用葡萄造酒。
We make wine from grapes.(这个make是完全他动词)。
(b)把你的故事说得有趣一点。
Make your story interesting.(这个make是不完全他动词)。
又如
(a)I think it is right.(完全他动词)。
(b)I think it right.(不完全他动词)。
英文的自动词照规矩是不能接上一个宾语的,不过有时用一个介词为媒介,也可以接用宾语,如
人人都笑我。
Everybody laughed at me.
思君令人老。
To think of you makes me old.
这正是中国话的表现法,但英文除极少数的文句外(如 To teach is to learn. To eat is to live.)一般都不喜欢用不定词作主语,而要改用形式上的“it”来作主语,把它说成:
It is wrong to tell a
lie.
英文用不定词作主语虽不流行,但至少文句是通的。用不定词作宾语,则有背英文的惯用法,成为不通的了。如说成,He does not think to tell a lie wrong.或说成,He
does not think wrong to tell a lie.都要不得,必须加用形式上的宾语“it”进去,而把它说成:
不定词虽不能用作宾语,但可用作补语,如 We found him to be alive.(我们发觉他还活着。)这种作补语用的不定词,有时可以略去,单说 We found him alive.意思也是一样,而且更加简明有力。
形式上的宾语,在某些常说的文句中,可以省略不用,尤其是后接不定词的时候为然,如:
Your father thought 〔it〕 fit to leave me guardian.(你父亲认为请我做监护人最为适合。)
If God sees 〔it〕 fit that I should marry,he would provide me with a worthy husband.(如果上帝认为我应该结婚,他就会供给我一个如意郎君的。)
And are you sure of all
this, are you sure 〔of it〕 that nothing ill has befallen my boy?(Goldsmith)(这一切都是真的吗,你确实知道我儿子没有遭遇任何不顺利的事吗?)
I am sorry 〔for it〕 that you are going away.(你要走我很难过。)
Men differ from brutes
in 〔it〕 that they
can think and speak.(人之所以异于禽兽,就在能思想能说话。)
He forgot everything but
〔it〕 that he was
near her.(Galsworthy)(他跟她在一块儿就把一切都忘了。)
【类例】
It is easy to learn
English,but it is difficult to attain
perfection in it.(英文易学难精。)
It is much easier to
read French than read Greek.(学法文比学希腊文容易多了。)
It may be advisable to
wait till they come back.(最好是等他们转来。)
She had said what it was
necessary to say.(要说的她都说了。)
It needs no great
sagacity to see that the writer is a novice at his task.(很容易看得出来那作家是一位生手,刚从事写作的。)
I found it very
difficult to put it in practice.(我觉得实行很难。)
He took it upon himself
to pay off the debt.(他自愿负责还清债务。)
I know it to be the
established custom of your sex to reject a man on the first application.(Jane Austen)(我知道拒绝男子的第一次求婚是你们女性的固定的习惯。)
Fortunately I have it in
my power to introduce you to very superior society.(幸而我还有能力可以介绍你给非常上流的社会。)
If you take it into your
head to go on refusing every offer of marriage in this way, you will never get
a husband at all.(如果你执意要继续这样来拒绝所有的求婚,你就永远得不到一个丈夫了。)
Make it the first object
to be able to fix and hold your attention upon your studies.(把专心致志于学业,持久不懈,作为第一目标。)
The fog made it
difficult to calculate the distance.(雾迷了眼,看不出距离来。)
【习题1】
1. It was glorious to
acquire a place by justice, yet more glorious to prefer justice before a place.
2. I have my own views
about learning a language.I think it waste of time to acquire a greater
knowledge than suffices me to read fluently and talk enough for the ordinary
affairs of life.(Maugham)
3. How far cards might
have helped him here it is difficult to say.(Hugh
Walpole)
(2)it...for...不定词
(a)It is difficult for him to do so.
要他这样做是有困难的。
(b)I think it difficult for him to do so.
我想要他这样做是有困难的。
【解说】
这是属于“it...不定词”同一形式的,“it”仍然是代表不定词的形式上的主语或宾语。翻译时必须把句中的不定词看作主动词,因为介词“for”的宾语是不定词的意味上的主语(sense subject),即宾语的“him”应译成主语才是。如果我们把填补词的“it”去掉,恢复原来应有的形式时,便成 To do so is difficult for him.这个“for him”,也可译成中文的“在他”,全句译为“要这样做,在他是有困难的”。但不如把“him”当作主语来译更加利落。
这个“for”有时可以换为“of”,如 It was brave indeed,of you to attempt it.(你真大胆敢于去尝试一下。)何时要用“for”,何时要用“of”,依前面的那个形容词而定。如果那个形容词是指的一种行为的性质(the nature
of an action),就要用“for”;如果那形容词是指的行为的性质,同时又指行为的人(the doer of an action),就要用“of”了。换句话说,单说行为的用“for”,说行为及行为者的用“of”,前者以“necessary”为例,后者以“kind”为例,造成句子,便是:
(a)It is necessary for you to do so.
(b)It is kind of you to do so.
句中说的“kind
of you”,可译为“你的行为是亲切的”,也就是说“行为者的你是亲切的”。句中说的“necessary for you”,可译为“你的行为是必要的”,却不能说什么“行为者的你”,即是:
(a)“必要的”(necessary)是指“行为”,不是指“行为者”。
(b)“亲切的”(kind)既是指“行为”,又是指“行为者”。
(b)句的意思是“他这样做是亲切的”,同时也是“这样做的人是亲切的”,但(a)句则只能说“这样做是必要的”,却不能说“这样做的人是必要的”,因为这样一来,变成必要的是“人”,而不是“事”了。我们只能改说成 You are kind to do so.不能改说成 You are
necessary to do so.其理甚明。再举一例,以资比较:
(a)It was impossible for him to go alone.
(b)It was foolish of him to go alone.
(a)句中的“impossible”,也和“necessary”一样,是指“事”而不是指“人”,所以要用非人称的“it”做主语,但(b)句中的“foolish”则和“kind”一样,既可指“事”,又可指“人”,说 It is foolish 既可以,说You are foolish 也可以,不过我们却不能说 It is foolish to do so.也不能说 It is foolish
for you to do so.一定要说 It is foolish of you to do so.
【类例】
It is no time for me to
hide anything.(Doyle)(什么东西都来不及藏起来。)
It is time for us to
start.(=that we should start)(现在是我们动身的时候了。)
It is an evil thing for
a man to have suspicion.(Caxton)(人要怀疑是一件坏事。)
It is not common for him
to receive letters.(Doyle)(他接信是不平常的。)
It is enough for me to
say that some of its circumstances passed before my own eyes.(Dickens)(关于我亲眼看见许多这样的情形的事,我已经说得够了。)
It is easier for a camel
to go through a needle’s eye than for a
rich man to enter into the kingdom of God.(Luke,xviii, 25)(骆驼穿过针的眼,比财主进上帝的国,还容易呢。)
How was it possible for
so great a commerce to flourish?(Gissing)(这样大的贸易怎么可以兴隆呢。)
【习题2】
1. It is so very
difficult for a sick man not to be a scoundrel.(Dr
Johnson)
2. It is not supposed to
be easy for women to rise to the height of taking the large free view of
anything—anything which calls for action.
3. It is foolish of him
to set himself to perform an impossibility.
4. It is not good for a
man to be alone.
5. It was wrong of you
to borrow his bicycle without asking his permission.
6. I think it wise of
him not to accept their offer.
I am thinking of
building a house enclosed with earthen walls,in
which plenty of bamboos,trees and various flowers
should be planted. There should be a curved path paved with broken bricks
leading to the porch. There are two spacious rooms behind the porch, one used
as drawingroom and the other as study. Books and
paintings,records and documents,writingbrushes and inksticks as well as inkstones,wine utensils and teasets are to be put in
these two rooms. My intimate friends and young people may come here to discuss
literature and make poems. Behind these there is the residence consisting of
three bedrooms for the family,two rooms as kitchen,and one as servant quarters,so the total
number of rooms in this house is eight, under the same thatched roof. That will
be quite enough for me. Some one says that such a house is comfortable to live
in,but the trouble is that thieves might easily break
in,too. But he doesn''t realize that thieves are but poor people. If they
should co